Mechanical and Chemical Digestion: Mechanical digestion involves physical breakdown of food through chewing and stomach churning, while chemical digestion uses enzymes and acids to break molecular bonds in nutrients.
Energy From Amino Acids: When carbohydrates and fats are insufficient, amino acids can be deaminated in the liver and converted into glucose or ketone bodies, serving as an energy source during prolonged fasting or starvation.
Heart Valves: The hearts four valvestricuspid, pulmonary, mitral, and aorticmaintain unidirectional blood flow and prevent backflow during the cardiac cycle through coordinated opening and closing.
Occluded Coronary Arteries: Occlusion of coronary arteries, often due to atherosclerotic plaque buildup, restricts blood flow to the heart muscle and can result in chest pain or myocardial infarction (heart attack).
Net Filtration Pressure: Net filtration pressure (NFP) is the balance of hydrostatic and osmotic pressures in the glomerulus, determining the movement of fluid into the nephron for urine formation.
Lower Limb Arteries Chart: The lower limb arterial system includes the femoral, popliteal, anterior tibial, posterior tibial, and dorsalis pedis arteries, supplying oxygenated blood to the leg and foot.
Conduction System of Heart: The hearts conduction system includes the SA node, AV node, bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers, coordinating the electrical impulses that drive rhythmic contractions.
Ureter: The ureters are muscular tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder using peristaltic contractions and gravity.
Hemopoiesis: Hemopoiesis is the process of blood cell formation that occurs primarily in the red bone marrow, producing erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets from hematopoietic stem cells.
Differentiation of T Cells Within the Thymus: T cells originate in the bone marrow but undergo maturation in the thymus, where they differentiate through positive and negative selection processes to become functional immune cells capable of recognizing specific antigens while View Diagram Differentiation of T Cells Within the Thymus
T and B Cell Binding: T and B cells bind to antigens through specialized receptors; T cells recognize antigen-MHC complexes, while B cells bind free antigens directly, initiating immune responses like cytokine release or antibody production.
The Lung Pleurae: The lungs are enclosed by the pleuraetwo thin layers of serous membrane (visceral and parietal) separated by pleural fluidwhich reduce friction during breathing and help maintain lung expansion.
Composition of Blood: Blood is composed of plasma (water, proteins, and nutrients), red blood cells (oxygen transport), white blood cells (immunity), and platelets (clotting).
Symptoms of Acidosis Alkalosis: Acidosis can cause fatigue, confusion, and rapid breathing, while alkalosis may lead to muscle cramps, dizziness, and tingling; both result from pH imbalances in blood.
Thoracic Abdominal Veins: These veins include the superior and inferior vena cava, azygos system, and hepatic veins, which return deoxygenated blood from the thorax and abdomen to the heart.
Electrocardiogram: An electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is a recording of the hearts electrical activity, displaying P waves, QRS complexes, and T waves that correspond to different phases of the cardiac cycle.
The Role of Parathyroid Hormone in Maintaining Blood Calcium Homeostasis: Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases blood calcium levels by stimulating bone resorption, enhancing calcium reabsorption in the kidneys, and activating vitamin D to increase intestinal absorption.
Coronary Blood Vessels: The coronary arteries and veins supply oxygen-rich blood to the myocardium and remove deoxygenated blood, ensuring the heart muscle receives the nutrients it needs to function effectively.
Kidney Position in Abdomen: The kidneys are retroperitoneal organs located on either side of the spine between the T12 and L3 vertebrae, with the right kidney slightly lower due to the liver.
Photo of Embryo: An embryo photo shows the early stages of human development, typically with visible somites, neural tube, limb buds, and heart bulge around week 46.
