Net Filtration Pressure: Net filtration pressure (NFP) is the balance of hydrostatic and osmotic pressures in the glomerulus, determining the movement of fluid into the nephron for urine formation.
Conduction System of Heart: The heartÂ’s conduction system includes the SA node, AV node, bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers, coordinating the electrical impulses that drive rhythmic contractions.
Factors in Cardiac Output: Cardiac output depends on stroke volume and heart rate, influenced by preload, afterload, contractility, and autonomic nervous system regulation.
Cardiac Conduction: The heart’s electrical system begins with the sinoatrial (SA) node, spreading impulses through the atria, to the atrioventricular (AV) node, and down the bundle branches and Purkinje fibers to coordinate contraction.
Neonatal Circulatory System: At birth, the neonatal circulatory system undergoes major changes as fetal shunts close and the lungs take over oxygen exchange, resulting in the adult-like pattern of blood flow.
Carbon Digestion: Carbohydrate digestion starts in the mouth with salivary amylase and continues in the small intestine with pancreatic enzymes, breaking polysaccharides into monosaccharides like glucose for absorption.
Action Potential Heart Contraction: A cardiac action potential initiates when the SA node fires, spreading electrical impulses that trigger calcium influx, leading to coordinated contraction of the atria and ventricles.
Blood Flow Relaxed Ventricles: When the ventricles relax during diastole, blood flows passively from the atria into the ventricles through the open AV valves, preparing the heart for the next contraction.
Phases of the Cardiac Cycle: The cardiac cycle includes atrial systole, ventricular systole, and diastole, each phase coordinating contraction and relaxation to maintain continuous blood flow through the heart and circulatory system.
Depolarization in Sinus Rhythm: In normal sinus rhythm, depolarization originates in the SA node and spreads uniformly through the atria and ventricles, resulting in coordinated heartbeats seen as distinct P, QRS, and T waves on an ECG.
Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Pathway: This hormonal cascade begins with renin release from the kidneys, leading to the formation of angiotensin II, a potent vasoconstrictor, and the secretion of aldosterone, which promotes sodium and water retention.
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