Autosomal Recessive Inheritance new: Autosomal recessive disorders require two copies of a mutated gene for expression; individuals with one copy are carriers, while affected individuals inherit one from each parent.
Clonal Selection of B Cells: Clonal selection occurs when a B cell with a receptor specific to an antigen proliferates and differentiates into plasma cells for antibody production and memory B cells for long-term immunity.
Blood cells: Blood contains red blood cells for oxygen transport, white blood cells for immune defense, and platelets for clotting, all suspended in plasma, which carries nutrients, hormones, and waste products.
Energy From Amino Acids: When carbohydrates and fats are insufficient, amino acids can be deaminated in the liver and converted into glucose or ketone bodies, serving as an energy source during prolonged fasting or starvation.
Hemopoiesis: Hemopoiesis is the process of blood cell formation that occurs primarily in the red bone marrow, producing erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets from hematopoietic stem cells.
Differentiation of T Cells Within the Thymus: T cells originate in the bone marrow but undergo maturation in the thymus, where they differentiate through positive and negative selection processes to become functional immune cells capable of recognizing specific antigens while View Diagram Differentiation of T Cells Within the Thymus
T and B Cell Binding: T and B cells bind to antigens through specialized receptors; T cells recognize antigen-MHC complexes, while B cells bind free antigens directly, initiating immune responses like cytokine release or antibody production.
Composition of Blood: Blood is composed of plasma (water, proteins, and nutrients), red blood cells (oxygen transport), white blood cells (immunity), and platelets (clotting).
Cooperation Between Innate and Immune Responses: The innate immune system provides immediate defense, while the adaptive system offers targeted responses; they cooperate through antigen presentation and cytokine signaling to eliminate pathogens.
Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissue MALT Nodule: MALT includes lymphoid nodules in mucosal tissues like the tonsils and Peyers patches, providing immune defense at sites exposed to external pathogens.
Erythrocyte Life Cycle: Red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow and circulate for about 120 days before being phagocytized in the spleen or liver, where their components are recycled for new cell formation or excretion.
Erythroblastosis Fetalis: Erythroblastosis fetalis is a hemolytic disease of the newborn caused by Rh incompatibility, where maternal antibodies attack fetal red blood cells, leading to anemia and jaundice.
Mendelian Pea Plant Cross: Mendels pea plant crosses revealed predictable inheritance patterns through dominant and recessive traits, forming the foundation of classical genetics.
Complement Cascade and Function: The complement system is a group of plasma proteins that, once activated, enhance immune responses by promoting inflammation, opsonizing pathogens for phagocytosis, and directly lysing microbial cells through the membrane attack complex.
Urea Cycle: The urea cycle occurs in the liver and converts toxic ammonia, a byproduct of protein metabolism, into urea, which is then safely excreted in the urine by the kidneys.
The Breakdown of Fatty Acids: Fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria through a process called beta-oxidation, generating acetyl-CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle to produce ATP for cellular energy.
Partial and Total Pressure of a Gas: The partial pressure of a gas is its contribution to the total pressure in a mixture; total pressure is the sum of all individual partial pressures, key in respiratory gas exchange.
Pathogen Presentation: Pathogen presentation involves antigen-presenting cells like dendritic cells and macrophages displaying fragments of pathogens on MHC molecules to activate T cells and initiate the immune response.
Antigenic Determinants: Antigenic determinants, or epitopes, are specific regions on an antigen that are recognized and bound by antibodies or T cell receptors, initiating an immune response.
Clonal Selection and Expansion of T Lymphocytes: When a T lymphocyte binds its specific antigen presented by an APC, it undergoes clonal selection and rapidly divides into effector and memory T cells, amplifying the immune response.
